Box 15-4
Infant Feeding-Readiness Cues
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The
infant demonstrates readiness for feeding when she:
• Begins
to stir.
• Bobs
the head against the mattress or mother’s neck/shoulder.
• Makes
hand-to-mouth or hand-to-hand movements.
•
Exhibits sucking or licking.
•
Exhibits rooting.
•
Demonstrates increased activity; arms and legs flexed; hands in a fist.
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Optimizing Outcomes— Assessing for milk
let-down
|
The
nurse assesses for cues that indicate that the milk letdown reflex has
occurred:
• The
mother reports a tingling sensation in the nipples (not always present).
• The
infant’s quick, shallow sucking pattern transitions to a slower, more drawing
pattern.
• The
infant exhibits audible swallowing.
• The
mother reports uterine cramping; increased lochia may be present.
• The
mother states she feels extremely relaxed during the feeding.
• The
opposite breast may leak milk.
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Once
the baby is latched on correctly, he must suckle and transfer milk. There
should be a 2:1 or 1:1 suck/swallow ratio with audible swallowing to indicate
that milk transfer is occurring. A 5:1 or higher suck/swallow ratio is
indicative of non-nutritive suckling. Non-nutritive suckling can result in poor
milk supply and lead to poor infant weight gain. Feedings that last less than
10 minutes or continue for longer than 40 minutes are not satisfactory and
require consultation and assessment by a lactation consultant.
Optimal
feeding results in the infant coming off the breast without assistance. Once
the feeding has ended, the infant should be in a relaxed state with hands open;
he may or may not be asleep. After a successful breastfeeding experience,
mothers often describe their baby as having a “drunken stupor” look. The nipple
should be everted and round, never fl at or pinched on any side. The mother
should report no pain and the infant should appear satiated.
Figure 15-9 Infant latch-on. A. Nipple
is aligned with the baby’s nose. B, C. As the baby latches to the nipple, the
baby’s mouth is placed one to two inches beyond the base of the nipple. D. To
remove the baby from the breast, the mother inserts her finger into the corner
of the baby’s mouth to break the seal.
EVALUATION OF NOURISHMENT: INFANT WEIGHT GAIN
All
newborns are expected to lose weight during the early days of life. A newborn
who is feeding frequently and effectively, in general, may lose an average of
5% of his birth weight (American Academy of Pediatrics [AAP], 2004). Any infant
who loses more than 7% of his birth weight should be carefully evaluated to
make sure that the he is being fed frequently enough and that the feeding
technique is effective in transferring milk from the mother’s breast.
An
infant weight loss of greater than 7% is not an “automatic” reason to
supplement breast feedings with formula. The administration of formula may
interfere with the baby’s interest in feeding at the breast and his ability to
learn appropriate breastfeeding techniques.
Nursing Insight— Preventing nipple
confusion
|
Nipple confusion may
result when breast fed infants receive supplemental feedings. Essentially,
the infant exhibits difficulty in knowing how to latch-on to the breast.
Nipple confusion occurs because breastfeeding and bottle feeding require
different skills. Sucking and swallowing patterns as well as the way the
tongue, cheeks, and lips are used vary considerably between breast and bottle
feeding. The infant’s tongue is pulled backward when sucking from the breast;
it is thrust forward when sucking from a rubber nipple. Parents should be
taught to avoid bottles until breast feeding is well established (usually 3
to 4 weeks).
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Once
the mother’s milk production increases and the volume of milk consumed
increases, most infants begin to gain 15 to 30 g or 1/2 to 1 oz. per day (AAP,
2004). This rate of gain continues for the first several months of life. Loss
of excessive weight or failure to begin a steady pattern of weight gain
indicates that the mother is not producing adequate milk, or the infant is not
ingesting adequate milk, or, much less commonly, the infant has other organic
problems. In most instances, correcting latch-on difficulties and proper
positioning improves milk transfer from the breast to the baby. As long as the
baby continues to feed well and is gaining weight the mother can be reassured not
to worry.
POSITIONS FOR BREASTFEEDING
Common
positions for nursing a baby include cradle hold, cross-cradle hold, football,
and side-lying (Fig.15-10). In the cradle hold position, the infant is cradled in
the arm, close to the maternal breast. The infant’s abdomen is placed against
the mother’s abdomen with the mother’s other hand supporting the breast. The
cross cradle hold is similar to the cradle hold, although in this hold, the
infant is laying in the opposite direction. In the football hold, the infant’s
back and shoulders are held in the palm of the mother’s hand. The infant is
tucked up under the mother’s arm, keeping the infant’s hip, shoulder, and ear
in alignment. The mother supports the breast to touch the infant’s lips. Once
the infant’s mouth is open, the mother pulls the infant toward the breast. In
the side-lying position, both the mother and the infant lay on their sides.
Facing one another, the mother should place a pillow behind the infant’s back
for support. The nipple should be placed within easy reach for the infant with
the mother guiding the nipple into the infant’s mouth (Lawrence & Lawrence,
2005).
Figure
15-10 Common positions for breastfeeding. A. Cradle hold position. B. Football
hold position. C. Side-lying position.
Now Can You— Discuss the physiology of
lactation and assist the breastfeeding mother?
|
1.
Describe the four stages involved in the process of lactation?
2.
Discuss techniques the breastfeeding mother can use to promote proper
“latch-on”?
3.
Explain what the mother should be taught regarding the infant’s weight?
4.
Demonstrate four common breastfeeding positions?
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PROBLEMS THAT RESULT IN INEFFECTIVE BREASTFEEDING
Sore
nipples are related to an incorrect latch-on and positioning of the infant at
the breast. If a mother complains of pain when the infant is nursing, it is
important to observe the baby for correct latch-on during feeding. The nurse
can assess for proper latching by making the following observations when the
infant is at the breast: maternal–infant positioning is optimal for feeding;
the infant exhibits a flanged lower lip, there is a good seal between the mouth
and nipple, and an audible swallow. Successful latch-on is essential to prevent
trauma to the nipple. The shape of the nipple at the conclusion of the feeding
also provides a good indicator for correct latching. If the nipple shape has
changed at the end of the feeding, the nurse should troubleshoot for specific
problems and teach the mother about correct latch and positioning techniques.
Optimizing Outcomes— Breast shells for
flat, inverted, or sore nipples
|
Breast
shells, which are plastic “nipple cups,” or inserts that fit into the bra,
are useful for women with fl at or inverted nipples because they help the
nipples to become more protuberant. They may also be used to prevent sore
nipples from making contact with the woman’s clothing or bra.
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Breast
engorgement is described as
excessive swelling and overfilling of the breast and areola and is a
physiological response to an increase in blood flow and an increase in milk
production. Engorgement, which may occur from infrequent feeding or ineffective
emptying of the breasts, results in congestion and over distension of the collecting
ductal system and obstruction of lymphatic drainage. It typically lasts about
24 hours. Symptoms of engorgement usually occur between the third and fifth day
after childbirth (when the milk “comes in”) and vary from minimally engorged
(patients complain of breast fullness and discomfort) to severe engorgement, characterized
by symptoms of pain, tenderness, hardness and warmth to the touch. With severe
engorgement, swelling of the breasts is profuse and extends from the clavicle
to the tail of Spence and the lower rib cage. The breasts may have a shiny,
taut appearance. The areolae become very fi rm and the nipples may flatten,
making it difficult for the infant to latch-on. Back pressure exerted on full
milk glands inhibits milk production. Thus, if milk is not removed from the
breasts, the milk supply may decrease. Treatment involves relieving the
patient’s discomfort by removal of the milk (via breast feeding or pumping) to
decrease stasis, which reduces the swelling and discomfort.
Because
the infant is very efficient in the removal of milk, frequent feeding (at least
every 2 to 3 hours) is advised to minimize the stasis of milk. The infant should
feed at each breast at least 15 to 20 minutes until at least one breast softens
after the feeding. To help reduce the swelling and enhance milk flow, the nurse
should instruct the mother to use warm compresses and perform hand expression
before nursing. This action softens the areola, initiates the let-down reflex,
and allows the infant to more easily grasp the areola. Massaging the breasts
during feedings is also beneficial. Other methods to enhance milk flow and help
facilitate infant latch-on include taking a warm shower or leaning over a bowl
of warm water and hand-expressing some milk before nursing. Since breast
swelling is related to increased blood flow, cold ice packs may be used after breastfeeding
or pumping to constrict blood flow and reduce the edema.
Complementary Care— Cabbage leaves to
diminish breast swelling
|
Patients
can be taught to place raw cabbage leaves over their breasts between feedings
to help reduce swelling. First, several large cabbage leaves are washed, then
stored in the refrigerator until they become cool. The leaves are then
crushed and placed directly on the breasts for 15 to 20 minutes. This process
may be repeated two to three times only; frequent application of the cabbage
leaves may decrease the milk supply. Women who are allergic to cabbage, sulfa
drugs, or who develop a skin rash should not use cabbage leaves (Lactation
Education Resources, 2004).
|
A
nonprescription anti-inflammatory medication such as ibuprofen (e.g., Motrin,
Advil) may be taken for the pain and swelling related to engorgement. It may be
particularly helpful for the mother to take the medication before breastfeeding
in anticipation of post feeding discomfort. Because of the significant increase
in breast size during lactation, patients should be advised to wear well fitting
supportive bras with no underwire for comfort. Bras that are too small may
compress the ducts and obstruct milk flow. If the infant is unable to
breastfeed, warm soaks, breast massage and the use of a manual or electric pump
for the expression of milk help to reduce milk stasis and swelling.
Ethnocultural Considerations— Cultural
influences and interventions for breastfeeding discomfort
|
When
educating mothers regarding management of breastfeeding-related discomfort,
the nurse must consider the cultural background of the patient. Many
non-Western cultures such as Asian, Latin, and African cultures embrace a hot
and cold “humoral theory.” Breastfeeding mothers from these cultures may
choose not to utilize a cold modality for the relief of breast engorgement or
discomfort. Although the nurse may explain the clinical rationale for
applying ice packs to the breasts, the patient is culturally bound to adhere
to her beliefs. Nurses must remain sensitive to culturally influenced customs
and allow patients to use relief measures that do not conflict with their
personal beliefs.
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COLLECTING AND STORING BREAST MILK
Collecting
and storing breast milk is a necessity for mothers who are separated from their
infants due to problems such as prematurity or illness. In other situations,
women may elect to return to school or work and wish to have breast milk
available for feeding by another individual. Freshly pumped breast milk can be
safely stored at room temperature for four hours or refrigerated at 34 to 39°F (0°C)
for 5 to 7 days after collection. Milk kept in a deep freezer at 0°F (19°C) can
be stored for 6 to 12 months
(Lawrence
& Lawrence, 2005).
The
oldest milk should be used first, unless the pediatrician recommends the use of
recently expressed milk. Women should be taught to thaw breast milk by placing the
collection container in the refrigerator. The thawing process may be
accelerated by holding the collection container under warm running water or by
placing it in a cup, pot, bowl, or basin of warm water. Breast milk should not
be allowed to thaw at room temperature, in very hot water, or in the microwave
oven. Microwaving the breast milk container can create “hot spots” and use of
the microwave oven or heating the container in very hot water may decrease the
milk’s anti-infective properties. Breast milk separates during storage. The
cream rises to the top, because breast milk is not homogenized. To mix the milk
after storage, the collection container should be gently swirled, or rotated;
vigorous shaking should be avoided. After the feeding, any milk that remains in
the feeding container should be discarded and not saved for a later feeding.
Thawed milk should never be refrozen.
Optimizing Outcomes— With manual (hand) and
electric expression of breast milk
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Performing
manual or electric expression of breast milk is sometimes necessary because
of medical complications or for occupational reasons. During the early
postpartum period, the woman should be encouraged to frequently express her
breast milk. This action helps to establish and increase the milk supply for
later breastfeeding needs. Once lactation has been established, the mother
should be encouraged to express milk, either manually or with an electric
breast pump, whichever method is most convenient or effective for her (Miller
et al., 2007).
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Electric Expression of Breast Milk
Women
should be encouraged to avoid pumping the breasts until the infant is
breastfeeding comfortably. Although the mother can help her baby learn to take
a bottle once breastfeeding has been well established, it is best to wait for 3
to 4 weeks before introducing bottle feeding. The American Academy of
Pediatrics (2004) recommends exclusive breastfeeding with no supplements, for
the first 6 months of life.
The
nurse teaches the woman to use hot, soapy water to wash her hands, all
components of the breast pump that will touch her breasts and all collecting
bottles before proceeding. Most equipment may also be safely cleaned in an
automatic dishwasher. If soap and water are not available, many “quick clean”
products may be safely used instead. Collecting bottles should be allowed to
air dry on a clean towel.
The
woman is encouraged to carefully read the instruction manual and practice
pumping when she is rested, relaxed, and when her breasts feel full. The nurse
can teach employed mothers to begin to pump and store breast milk 2 to 3 weeks
before returning to work. The breasts should be pumped once a day, every day, 7
days a week. The first morning pumping usually produces the largest quantity of
milk. If possible, the woman should nurse the baby on one breast while pumping
the other breast. The breast milk may be stored in the refrigerator or freezer.
The 7-day-a-week pumping schedule should continue even after the woman has
returned to work (Tully, 2005).
Many
employed mothers use the fresh breast milk they pump while at work for infant
feedings the following day. For example, the breast milk pumped at work on
Monday should be refrigerated and used on Tuesday. Mothers should be counseled
to breastfeed the infant before leaving for work and then adhere to a set
schedule of pumping and feeding each day. Breast milk collected (by pumping) on
Friday and Saturday can be frozen for future use. Ideally, mothers should pump
the breasts for each missed feeding, but two pumpings per work day during an
8-hour work shift is realistic for most women. The breasts should be pumped for
15 to 20 minutes or until the milk flow stops. Breastfeeding should be resumed
during the evening and throughout weekends (Johnston & Esposito, 2007).
Types of Breast Pumps
A
variety of manual and electric breast pumps are available, and, for most women,
the choice is made according to needs, preferences, and financial resources.
Hospital grade electric breast pumps are designed for complete mother–baby
separation. In these situations, the infant will not be able to breastfeed for
an indeterminate period of time due to problems such as prematurity, surgery,
or illness. Hospital-grade electric pumps are typically considered to be
multiple-user rental equipment. Retail or “personal use” electric breast pumps
are excellent alternatives to the rented hospital-grade pump (Fig. 15-11).
These single-user electric breast pumps usually work well for the working
mother or in situations in which consistent pumping is needed. Occasional use
battery powered or manual breast pumps are designed for the mother who needs to
have extra milk only once in a while.
INFANT WEANING
When
a mother decides to wean the baby from the breast, it is recommended that she
begin by eliminating one feeding at a time. Usually the least favorite nursing
time is the first one that is discontinued (Cadwell et al., 2006). After
waiting for a few days, an alternate feeding time (not the one immediately
before or after the one already discontinued) may be eliminated. Mothers should
be advised to carefully observe the baby for signs of emotional or physical
reactions (i.e., cow’s milk allergy if formula is introduced). Babies sometimes
choose to stop nursing although this does not usually occur with infants
younger than 1 year of age. The American Academy of Pediatrics (2004) currently
recommends breastfeeding for the first 12 months of life.
Figure
15-11 Personal use electric breast pump.
ASSISTING
THE MOTHER WHO CHOOSES TO FORMULA-FEED HER INFANT
Information
regarding formula choices should be offered to mothers who choose not to
breastfeed. Formula preparations come in ready-to-feed cans that can be poured directly
into a bottle, liquid concentrates that require dilution before feeding and
powder formulas that are mixed with water. A variety of bottles and nipples are
also available, and selection is usually based on the parent’s preference. For example,
the mother may choose from glass bottles or plastic bottles with angled or
straight nipples or convenience bottles with disposable liners. The nurse
should remind the parents to periodically check the nipple integrity to ensure
that the formula flows freely one drop at a time. If the formula flows too
quickly, the nipple should be discarded because it poses a risk for infant choking
and aspiration.
Parents
should also be advised to read and follow the manufacturer’s instructions
explicitly when preparing the formula. For example, no water should be added to
the ready-to-feed preparations and care should be taken to correctly dilute the
concentrate and powder preparations. Poorly prepared formula that is too
concentrated (from adding an incorrect amount of water) may result in infant hypernatremia
and dehydration. Formula that is too dilute may cause the infant to demonstrate
symptoms of undernourishment and water intoxication.
Bottles
and nipples must be thoroughly washed in hot soapy water with dishwashing
detergent and then rinsed in hot clean water. They may also be cleaned in an
automatic dishwasher. Some parents prefer to sterilize their equipment and a
variety of commercial sterilizers that can be placed in a microwave oven are
available for purchase at most baby stores. If boiling is the preferred
cleaning method, parents should be instructed to wash the bottles, nipples,
rings, discs and all other equipment used to prepare the formula in hot soapy
water. The items are then well rinsed in hot, clean water, placed in a pot
filled with enough water to cover the equipment and boiled for 5 to 10 minutes.
Although
formula can be fed to the baby at room temperature, if warmed formula is
preferred, the parents are instructed to place the prepared bottle of formula
in a bowl of hot (not boiling) water for a few minutes. Alternatively, the
prepared bottle of formula can be warmed in an electric bottle warmer available
at most baby stores. It is important to emphasize to parents the need for
testing the temperature of warmed formula before feeding. Parents are instructed
to shake a few drops of formula on the inside of the wrist. The liquid should
feel warm, but not hot.
When
feeding the baby, parents should choose a comfortable chair, and hold the baby
in their arms close to them with the baby’s head higher than the rest of the
body to prevent aspiration and minimize ear infection. Holding the baby
skin-to-skin and maintaining full eye contact throughout the feeding helps to
facilitate the bonding process. To prevent the baby from swallowing too much
air, the bottle should be kept in an angled position with the nipple
continuously filled with formula. Burping is usually performed midway and at
the end of the feeding to remove excess air from the infant’s stomach. To burp
the baby properly, parents are taught to either hold the baby over their
shoulder or on their lap with the baby’s head supported. The baby’s back is
gently rubbed until air is expelled (Fig. 15-12).
Parents
should be advised that babies usually spit up during burping and that this is
normal. However, the pediatrician must be consulted if the baby vomits large amount
of formula with burping or after feeding. Since babies eat more efficiently and
take in the desired amount of formula when they are hungry, a “baby-driven”
demand feeding schedule rather than a regimented feeding schedule is desirable.
The pediatrician can provide guidelines regarding the volume of formula the
baby needs.
Safe Practices for Bottle Feeding
When
informing parents about the safety of formula, it is important for health care
professionals to be aware that liquid formulas have been subjected to high
temperatures to make the product sterile. Powdered formulas are not sterile
because high temperatures destroy vital nutrients. The microorganism
Enterobacter sakazakii, known to cause meningitis, has been identified in
powdered formula. To minimize the risk of infection, health care professionals must
provide accurate instructions to parents regarding the correct procedure for
formula preparation, storage and reconstitution. Instructions given should emphasize
the importance of good handwashing techniques before handling the equipment
that is to be used to reconstitute the powder. The formula should never be mixed
in a blender or stored in large amounts for longer than 24 hours. Cold water
should be used to mix the powder, only the amount to be used for each feeding
should be prepared, and any unused formula should be discarded. Parents should
be cautioned not to use a microwave oven to prepare or warm the formula due to
the potential for “hot spots” that can burn the infant’s mouth. They should also
be taught to never prop the bottle to allow the infant to feed alone or put the
infant to bed with a bottle. These practices may result in choking, ear
infections, and tooth decay.
Figure
15-12 One infant burping technique.
Optimizing Outcomes— Safely preparing
infant formula
|
Nurses
can provide the following safety instructions to parents who plan to formula
feed their infant:
• Wash
hands before beginning to prepare formula and after any interruptions.
• Always
shake and wash tops of liquid formula cans before opening.
•
Reconstitute the formula according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Store
the ready-to-feed formula according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Shake
the bottle well before feeding.
•
Discard any formula that the infant does not drink.
• Wash
thoroughly/sterilize all equipment used to prepare the infant formula and use
a bottle and nipple brush to remove milk residue.
•
Replace the nipples regularly.
|
Now Can You— Discuss breast milk storage
and assist the mother who is bottle feeding her infant?
|
1.
Explain what the breastfeeding mother should be taught about pumping and
storing breast milk?
2.
Discuss appropriate cleaning techniques for bottles and nipples?
3.
Describe special precautions to be used with powdered formulas?
|
Promoting
Family and Infant Bonding
FACILITATING THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD
The
transition to parenthood can be an especially difficult and challenging time
for primiparous mothers with limited experience in infant care and for new
parents who are experiencing social isolation from family or friends. Feelings of
anxiety and inadequacy regarding parenting skills, lack of knowledge and confidence
about providing baby care, emotional concerns, depression, and detachment toward
the infant are all symptoms not infrequently expressed by first-time mothers.
This information underscores the importance patients place on nurses and other health
care professionals to provide emotional support and accurate information about
self care and baby care.
An
essential goal of nursing care at this time is to create a supportive teaching
environment that increases the parents’ knowledge and confidence in caring for
themselves and their infants. Using the principles of Family-Centered Care as a
guideline, nurses can help parents cope with the emotional and physical changes
that accompany the childbearing year. To create a supportive teaching
environment, the nurse can:
• Perform
a needs assessment to identify the parents’ knowledge/skill deficits.
• Utilize
good communication and listening skills to provide support.
• Empower
the parents by assisting them in recognizing their own strengths.
•
Facilitate parents’ actions to participate in the decision making process.
• Provide
learning opportunities that move the parents from dependence to independence
and self-reliance.
ASSUMING THE MOTHERING ROLE
Rubin
(1975) described three distinct phases that are associated with the woman’s assuming
the mothering role. She labeled these phases “Taking-in,” “Taking-hold,” and “Letting-go”
(Table 15-6). At the time of Rubin’s work, women were traditionally
hospitalized for 5-7 days after childbirth and nurses could readily observe
their patients’ transitions through each phase. Today, however, with shortened
hospital stays, women seem to move through the transitions much more rapidly
and often there is overlapping of the phases.
In
the first day or two after birth, the mother is exhausted and should be
encouraged to rest. During this time she is reflecting and clarifying, or “taking-in”
her birth experience. Many mothers want to talk about their labor, discuss
with family members the detailed events of the labor, seek clarification if
unexpected events occurred, and share joys or disappointments associated with
the birth. Mothers who hold specific expectations for their birth experience
and are unable to follow a birth plan or who are required to transfer from a
birth center to a hospital setting may experience feelings of loss and mourn
for the hoped for birth experience.
As
the mother’s physical condition improves, she begins to take charge, and enters
the taking-hold phase where she assumes care for herself and her
infant. At this time, the mother eagerly wants information about infant care
and shows signs of bonding with her infant. During this phase, the nurse should
closely observe mother–infant interactions for signs of poor bonding and if
present, implement actions to facilitate attachment.
Table 15.6 Phases Associated with the
Mothering Role
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Phase 1:
Taking-In
|
Phase 2:
Taking-Hold
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Phase 3:
Letting-Go
|
First
1–2 days Second and/or third day First 2–6 weeks postpartum
The
mother is recovering from the immediate exhaustion of labor.
She is
relatively dependent on others to meet her physical needs.
Characteristics
of her behavior include:
a)
Physical exhaustion
b)
Elation, excitement, and/or anxiety and confusion.
c)
Reliving, verbally and mentally, the events of her labor and birth.
|
Second
and/or third day
The
mother starts to initiate action and to begin some of the tasks of
motherhood.
She may:
a) Ask
for help with self-care
b) Begin
caring for the baby
c) Be
anxious about her mothering abilities.
|
First
2–6 weeks postpartum
This is
the time during which the mother redefines her new role.
She:
a) Moves
beyond the mother–infant symbiosis of pregnancy and early postpartum and
begins to see her infant as an emerging individual.
b)
Starts to focus on issues larger than those associated directly with herself
and her newborn. (She begins to focus on her partner, other children, and
family issues.)
|
Critical
nursing action Assessing
for Maternal–Infant Attachment
|
·
When observing the mother with her newborn,
the nurse should look for clues that indicate successful bonding. The nurse
should assess for the following indicators:
·
Does the mother show eagerness to care for
her infant?
·
What is her response when the baby cries?
·
Does she make eye contact when holding and
feeding her baby?
|
In
the letting-go phase, seen later in the mother’s recovery, the
woman begins to see the infant as an individual separate from herself. At this
point, she can leave the baby with a sitter, set aside more time for herself,
become more involved with her partner, and begin adapting to the realities of
parenthood. Maladjustment during this phase may occur with an overprotective
mother who has difficulty accepting help with infant care from others and who
excludes the partner from her affections.
Across Care Settings: Successful
maternal transition into the letting-go phase
|
During
the letting-go phase, the mother may have difficulty with the tasks
associated with viewing the infant as a separate individual. This phase
occurs after the mother has been discharged from the hospital or birthing
center. Postpartum and community health nurses who suspect that patients may
have difficulty making a successful transition into this phase must
communicate their concerns with the infant’s pediatric care team so that
appropriate assessments and interventions can be carried out.
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Bonding
and Attachment
Bonding is
described by Klaus (1982) as the promotion of a unique and powerful
relationship between the parent and the infant. Attachment refers to the tie
that exists between the parent and infant and is recognized as a feeling that
binds one person to another.
MATERNAL
Bonding
begins at the moment the pregnancy is confirmed and continues through the birth
experience, during the postpartal period and throughout the early years of the child’s
life. Bonding is critical for the infant’s survival and development. Providing
parents with a model of caring during labor, birth, and in the early postpartum
period enhances the bonding process and helps to lay the foundation for the
nurturing care that the child will later receive. Touch is recognized as an
important communication tool between humans.
Figure
15-13 Bonding
is enhanced with mother-infant eye-to-eye contact.
Touch
is an essential element in the creation of a loving relationship and lasting
attachment between the parents and their child. Nurses can be instrumental in
enhancing the bonding process by minimizing the time that the infant is
separated from the mother. Fostering a positive mother–child relationship
begins in the delivery/birthing room when the infant is placed directly on the
mother’s chest and is held skin-to-skin. The nurse should encourage the mother
to initiate early eye contact during the first 30 minutes after childbirth when
both the mother and her baby are alert (Fig. 15-13). This special quiet time
provides an opportunity for connecting and communicating with one another.
Early initiation of breastfeeding for mothers who wish to breastfeed and
utilizing a rooming-in protocol are important nursing interventions that
contribute to a positive maternal-child relationship (Dabrowski, 2007).
Optimizing
Outcomes— Providing couplet care as an alternative to rooming-in
|
Rooming-in
is a common strategy to enhance bonding. With this arrangement, the mother
and her infant share a room and the mother and her nurse share the care of
the infant. Some facilities offer a variation termed couplet care. In these
settings, the nurse has been educated in both mother and infant care and
serves as the primary nurse for the mother and the infant, even when the
infant is kept in the nursery.
|
PATERNAL
Historically,
mothers have been considered to be the major nurturer of children. By
tradition, the mother took care of the child’s needs while the father, in the
“breadwinner” role, worked and formed little attachment during the infant’s
early years. Changes in women’s roles, couples’ participation in childbirth
preparation classes, allowing fathers in the delivery room and encouraging
early contact with the infant have all been instrumental in promoting and
fostering early paternal–infant bonding. Other researchers (St. John, Cameron,
& McVeigh, 2005) have documented the benefits of early and ongoing contact
between fathers and infants (Fig. 15-14). When the primary caregiver is able to
touch, hold, and attach with the newborn infant, this special interaction helps
to build the foundation for a nurturing and protective relationship. Fathers
should be encouraged to assume an active role in infant bonding by
participating in the care giving activities. For example, fathers can change
diapers, engage in skin-to-skin holding and infant massage, and feed the
bottle-fed infant.
FACTORS
THAT MAY INTERRUPT THE BONDING PROCESS
Stress
associated with insufficient finances to purchase infant supplies, a chaotic
home life, concerns about child care if the mother must return to work, lack of
family support, and substance abuse may negatively interfere with the bonding
process. An essential nursing role involves identifying obstacles to optimal
bonding and coordinating with appropriate community resources such as social
services to explore the mother’s eligibility for Medicaid, the Women’s Infants
and Children’s (WIC) program, and Healthy Start. Other resources may include
counseling and support services, financial aid, and pastoral care.
Adolescent
mothers may not demonstrate attachment behaviors because they have unrealistic
expectations of the infant’s level of functioning and may not be aware of the
infant’s vulnerability. It is important for nurses to create a supportive
environment that allows the young mother close and frequent interaction with
her infant. The nurse must also provide anticipatory guidance and education
about infant care that includes how to recognize and respond appropriately to
infant cues. With today’s shortened hospital stays, it becomes imperative that
appropriate home follow-up and social work referrals are established before
discharge for this vulnerable population.
Figure
15-14 The
father gets acquainted with his newborn.
Case
Study Adolescent
Primipara with a Possible Bonding Difficulty
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Sarah, a 17-year-old primipara, gave birth to a healthy
7 lb., 8 oz. (3.4 kg) baby boy yesterday. Although Sarah has been pleasant
during her hospitalization, she has expressed little interest in her infant.
When the nurses offer to bring the infant to the room, Sarah typically asks
them to keep the infant in the nursery so that she can “relax and sleep.” She
plans to bottle feed her son but has repeatedly found excuses not to feed the
baby. The nursery personnel have been feeding the infant instead. The nurses
are becoming very concerned because Sarah is to be discharged home with the
infant tomorrow.
1. How
would you initially respond to the situation? Based on your understanding of
the developmental tasks of adolescence, how will you initiate dialog with
Sarah?
2. How can
the nurse help Sarah begin to feel comfortable holding her baby and also
promote maternal–infant bonding?
3. What
other nursing actions are indicated?
◆ See Suggested
Answers to Case Studies in text on the Electronic
Study
Guide or DavisPlus.
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Women
from diverse cultural groups who reside in extended families may be comfortable
enlisting the help of their mother, mother-in-law, or a female relative in
caring for the infant while they recuperate from childbirth. It is important
for the nurse to explore the mother’s cultural values and mores before
reporting a lack of bonding and attachment between the mother and her infant.
An
interruption in the bonding process may occur when infants must be separated
from their parents for medical or surgical interventions. To promote optimal
bonding in these special circumstances, it is important to allow the parents
early and frequent access to the infant.
The staff
in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) can enhance parental attachment and
bonding by encouraging the parents to touch, speak to and hold their neonate
skin to- skin as soon as is medically safe. If the mother is unable to visit,
photographs of the infant should be sent to her as soon as possible and
frequent telephone calls made to keep her advised of the infant’s status. The
mother must be reassured that the bonding process is ongoing and that lack of
early contact will not interfere with the development of a positive
relationship with her infant.
ADJUSTMENT
OF SIBLINGS TO THE NEWBORN
The arrival
of a new baby into the family results in many emotional changes for the
siblings. Feelings of hurt and jealously, sibling rivalry, and behavioral
regression are all common among younger siblings. For example, a toilet trained
toddler may once again require diapers or a 2-yearold who has been weaned may
now wish to breastfeed.
Parents
should be prepared for these common emotional upheavals and formulate
strategies that will help the sibling(s) adjust and accept the baby. Many
hospitals offer sibling classes for young (ages 2 to 8) children that introduces
the concept of having a new addition to the family and provides parents with specific
information about how to make the transition easier.
Family
Teaching Guidleines…Helping Older Siblings Adjust to the New Baby
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Nurses
can be instrumental in arming parents with strategies to help their children
accept and adjust to a new infant. The following tips may be useful:
◆ Talk with the child
(ren) about their feelings regarding the new baby. Listen and validate their
feelings.
◆ Teach the older
sibling how to play with the new baby; encourage gentleness.
◆ Help develop the
child’s self-esteem by giving him/her special jobs, for example, bringing the
diaper when you are changing the baby. Praise each contribution.
◆ Praise
age-appropriate behaviors and do not criticize regressive behaviors.
◆ Set aside a special
time each day for you to be alone with the older child; remind the child that
he/she is loved very much.
TOPIC:
Warning signs indicative of poor sibling adjustment
Professional
help may be needed when the child:
◆ Continually avoids
or ignores the baby
◆ Shows the baby no
affection
◆ Is consistently
angry, taunting or demonstrating aggressive behavior towards the baby or
other family members
◆ Experiences nightmares
and sleeping difficulties
Adapted
from International Childbirth Education Association (2003).
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ADJUSTMENT
OF GRANDPARENTS TO THE NEWBORN
Grandparents
can provide much support to the new family and the degree of their involvement
is often linked to cultural expectations. Many cultures (i.e., Hispanics, Asians,
and Caribbeans) strongly value the extended family. In these settings, the
grandparents are intimately involved in the fabric of family dynamics and
frequently exert a strong influence on child-rearing practices. Grandparents’ classes,
offered by most hospitals, usually focus on defining grandparenting roles such
as helping with sibling care during the mother’s hospitalization and providing assistance
with household activities and cooking and shopping during the fi rst few
postpartal weeks. Other class themes include current recommendations concerning
infant positioning, feeding and clothing, responding to behavior cues, and
positive strategies for assuming a supportive, rather than a parenting role.
Now Can
You— Facilitate family bonding with the newborn?
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1.
Identify and describe Rubin’s three phases associated with assuming the
mothering role?
2.
Describe strategies to facilitate maternal and paternal bonding?
3.
Discuss five specific activities that parents can use to help older siblings
adjust to the newborn?
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Family
Teaching Guidelines... Helping Older Siblings Adjust to the New Baby
|
Nurses
can be instrumental in arming parents with strategies to help their children
accept and adjust to a new infant. The following tips may be useful:
◆ Talk with the
child(ren) about their feelings regarding the new baby. Listen and validate
their feelings.
◆ Teach the older
sibling how to play with the new baby; encourage gentleness.
◆ Help develop the
child’s self-esteem by giving him/her special jobs, for example, bringing the
diaper when you are changing the baby. Praise each contribution.
◆ Praise
age-appropriate behaviors and do not criticize regressive behaviors.
◆ Set aside a special
time each day for you to be alone with the older child; remind the child that
he/she is loved very much.
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Emotional and Physiological Adjustments
During the Puerperium
EMOTIONAL
EVENTS
Many
mothers experience a roller coaster of emotions after childbirth. These
feelings stem from a number of influences and are often linked to perceptions
concerning the fulfillment of expectations surrounding the childbirth experience.
A complicated birth, a premature birth or a sick infant, as well as the woman’s
parity, age, marital status and stability of family finances are some of the
many factors known to shape emotions experienced during the postpartum period.
The
first 3 months after birth are recognized as the most vulnerable emotional
period for mothers. Insecurity about infant care, the constant demands
associated with caring for the baby, sleep deprivation, and minimal social support
create the potential for frequent and dramatic mood changes. Rapid hormonal
changes during the first few postpartal days and weeks may give rise to mood
disorders. The most common of these is often termed “the blues.” Other less
common puerperal mood disorders include post partum depression and post partum
psychosis.
Maternity
Blues/Baby Blues/Postpartum Blues
The
“maternity blues” are considered to be a normal reaction to the dramatic
changes that occur after childbirth including abrupt withdrawal of the hormones
estrogen, progesterone and cortisol. Women experience a range of symptoms that
include tearfulness, mood swings, insomnia, fatigue, anxiety, difficulty
concentrating, irritability and poor appetite. The symptoms usually begin
during the first few postpartal days, peak on the fifth day, and then subside over
the next several days. Blues do not affect the woman’s ability to care for
herself or her newborn and family.
The
“blues” are treated with support and reassurance (Beck, Records, & Rice,
2006). Proactive education to prepare the woman and her family for the
possibility of postpartum blues is important. The nurse needs to explore what resources
the new mother will have available when she goes home. The discussion should
focus on whether the patient has adequate food, clothing, shelter, and
transportation, and whether there are relational concerns that need to be addressed
before discharge. Incorporating community resources such as the woman’s church,
a Mother’s Day Out group, a hobby club, or La Leche League can help the new mother
realize she is not alone in the experience of nurturing a newborn, while also
caring for herself and her family. Referral to a health care provider is
appropriate for women whose symptoms persist for more than ten days, as this
pattern is suggestive of postpartum depression.
Postpartum
Depression
Postpartum
depression, which affects 10% to 13% of women, usually appears around two weeks
after childbirth. The symptoms associated with this condition are often
insidious and include sleep disturbances, guilt, fatigue, and feelings of
hopelessness and worthlessness. In severe instances, suicidal ideation may
occur. Patients who demonstrate symptoms of post partum depression must be
promptly referred for evaluation and intervention.
Postpartum
Psychosis
Postpartum
psychosis develops in approximately one or two women for every 1000 births and
is unlikely to manifest itself during the early postpartum period. Symptoms include
delusions; hallucinations; agitation; inability to sleep; and bizarre,
irrational behavior. Before hospital discharge, patients with a history of mood
disorders or depression should be referred to appropriate resources for community
support and follow-up.
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO EMOTIONAL EVENTS
Tiredness
and Fatigue
Postpartum
tiredness and fatigue have long been considered a natural physiological and
psychological response to the stresses of labor and childbirth coupled with the
additional responsibilities of motherhood. Although new mothers are often confident
that tiredness will improve upon returning home, this phenomenon is not
supported by the nursing literature. Rather, the multiplicity of demands
associated with motherhood augments the experience of physical and mental
exhaustion. While changes in societal trends in the care of children suggest
that fathers are taking a more active role, mothers continue to hold the main
responsibility for care. Thus, it is essential for the nurse to encourage new
mothers to enlist the support and assistance of family and friends in an effort
to promote time for rest and recovery (Runquist, 2007).
Nursing Insight— Persistent fatigue during the puerperium
Feelings
of fatigue that extend beyond the 6-week postpartal period may be indicative of
a more serious condition. Persistent, pervasive fatigue may be indicative of
postpartum depression (Troy, 2003). The woman and her family should be provided
with guidelines about normal feelings and reactions during the puerperium and
encouraged to report excessive tiredness or fatigue to the health care
provider.
Contributors
to fatigue and tiredness in the postpartum period include physical, psychological,
and situational variables. Physical contributors include the length of labor, maternal
hormone shifts, maternal anemia, episiotomy or surgical incision healing,
breast feeding, and pain. Psychological contributors include difficulty
sleeping, depression, and a non supportive partner. The challenge of managing
multiple roles, cultural influences and expectations, a lack of assistance with
housework or childcare, having more than one child under the age of 5 in the
home, and returning to outside employment are situational variables that can
readily lead to fatigue. Insights into the multiple contexts that shape the
patient’s environment allow nurses to provide anticipatory guidance regarding
fatigue and its relationship with diminished quality of life in the postpartum
period (Runquist, 2007).
Postpartal
Discharge Planning and Teaching
PROMOTING
MATERNAL SELF CARE
Because
of early postnatal discharge, all postpartal women must be taught strategies
for self-care. A self-assessment sheet completed before discharge helps to
identify areas of deficits. When possible, parents are encouraged to attend a
discharge teaching class. Topics reviewed usually include infant bathing,
breastfeeding, perineal hygiene, physical activity, rest and expected emotional
changes. This information is useful because it empowers the family to identify normal
events and to promptly recognize complications that should be reported to the
health care provider. Many institutions also distribute home care booklets that
provide written information about maternal and newborn care and available
community resources. Often, home visitation by a community health nurse is
arranged before the patient’s discharge. The community health nurse visit typically
includes an examination of the mother and infant, an opportunity for discussion
about problems or concerns and breastfeeding or formula feeding support. Additional
areas of focus during the postpartal visit include education regarding basic
maternal and infant care, plans for follow up visits and contraception
counseling (Fig. 15-15).
Optimizing
Outcomes— When early postpartum discharge is planned
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Women
and their families may have the option of early discharge with postpartum
home care. Maternal criteria for early discharge includes an uncomplicated
perinatal course, no evidence of PROM, no difficulties with voiding or
ambulation, normal vital signs, hemoglobin _ 10 g and no significant vaginal
bleeding. The infant must also meet certain criteria (i.e., full term, normal
vs and physical examination, feeding, urinating, stooling,
laboratory/screening tests completed). Early follow-up visits are an
essential component of safe care for mothers and their infants (AAP Committee
on Fetus and Newborn, 2004; Meara, Kotagal, Atherton, & Lieu, 2004).
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